Molecular Biology Blog

Vectors for Cancer Therapy

2010-07-28T17:29:42+01:00

Oncolytic HSV (oHSV) virotherapy is a promising new strategy for cancer therapy, converting a human pathogen into a therapeutic agent. This takes advantage of the biology of HSV, by introducing genetic alterations that limit virus replication and cytotoxicity to transformed cancer cells while making the virus non-permissive in normal cells. HSV encodes a large number of genes that are non-essential for growth in tissue culture cells, but are nevertheless important for growth in post-mitotic cells and for interfering with intrinsic antiviral and innate immune responses. Many of the cellular pathways regulating growth and antiviral responses are disrupted in cancer cells, which means that viral gene products allowing replication in normal cells are not necessary in cancer cells. In considering the development of an infectious agent for human use, safety is a critical consideration. Therefore mutations targeting cancer cells must be combined with mutations in genes that play important roles in vivo; causing pathogenicity, spread through the nervous system and other organs, latency and reactivation, and adaptive immune responses. This review will focus more on the virological aspects of oHSV vectors and less on the cancer cell target, and describe the multiple strategies and genes involved in generating oHSV vectors. However, it is important to bear in mind that the effect of different HSV mutations will be highly dependent upon the physiology of the particular type of cancer cell and tumor, and that each oHSV vector will be more effective in some tumor types, so that it is unlikely that any one oHSV will be optimal for all types of cancer.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Autophagy

2010-07-28T17:28:01+01:00

Autophagy is a rapidly growing area of biomedical research with broad relevance to fields including microbiology, cell biology, immunology, cancer biology, and neurodegeneration. In infection and immunity, it is emerging as a pivotal pathway mediating direct pathogen degradation as well as for the development of robust innate and adaptive immune responses. Successful pathogens have evolved to either evade or harness the autophagy pathway to further their replication and pathogenesis. In a recent review the basic aspects of autophagy will be described, along with its role in cellular homeostasis, and the development of immunity. The primary focus is a survey of past and recent research defining the interplay of autophagy and the herpesviruses, with particular reference to immune evasion and pathogenesis.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Human Alpha-herpesvirus MicroRNAs

2010-07-28T17:25:34+01:00

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are an extensive class of approx 22 nucleotide long regulatory RNAs expressed by all mammalian cells and also by several DNA viruses, including many members of the herpesvirus family. Using deep sequencing technology, it has now been demonstrated that Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) encodes at least eight viral miRNAs, seven of which are expressed in latently infected human neurons. Similarly, HSV-2 has also been shown to encode at least six miRNAs, four of which are evolutionarily conserved between HSV-2 and HSV-1. Perhaps surprisingly, varicella zoster virus does not appear to express any viral miRNAs in latently infected cells. A recent review discusses the potential functions of the currently known HSV-1 and HSV-2 miRNAs, focusing on a possible role in stabilizing viral latency in infected neurons.

Further reading: Alphaherpesviruses: Molecular Virology

Microbial Biopolymers Book Review

2010-07-21T15:51:43+01:00

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors: Applications and Perspectives:

"The authors of this comprehensive review are internationally accepted specialists in the field of using microorganisms as a cell factory for biopolymers or special precursors of these polymers ... The editor and the authors have produced an excellent up-to date compendium which is extremely useful for all students of biotechnology, engineering and scientists in the biotechnological and microbiological branches and is recommended for all biotechnological and microbial laboratories and enterprises in this field. It should be available in libraries at universities, research institutes and biotechnological companies and is further strongly recommended to all those who are interested in life sciences." from Uta Breuer (Halle, Germany) writing in Clean (2009) 37(6): 414 read more ...

Microbial Production of Biopolymers and Polymer Precursors: Applications and Perspectives

Edited by: Bernd H. A. Rehm
ISBN: 978-1-904455-36-3
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: January 2009
Cover: hardback

"an excellent up-to date compendium ... strongly recommended" (Clean)

5th Annual DREAM Reverse Engineering Challenges

2010-07-19T16:49:10+01:00

November 16 - 20, 2010 5th Annual DREAM Reverse Engineering Challenges
New York, USA Further information
Held jointly with the 6th Annual RECOMB Satellite on Systems Biology, and the 7th Annual RECOMB Satellite on Regulatory Genomics. The goal of the meeting is to bring together computational and experimental scientists in the area of regulatory genomics and systems biology, to discuss current research directions, latest findings, and establish new collaborations towards a systems-level understanding of gene regulation. The meeting consists of keynote presentations, oral presentations selected from submitted manuscripts and 1-page abstracts, and posters presentations also selected from submitted abstracts. More than 500 participants attended last year\'s meeting, the vast majority of whom attended all three meetings, and we expect a similar interest this year.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

ESF-EMBO Symposium on Molecular Perspectives on Protein-Protein Interactions

2010-07-19T16:47:35+01:00

November 14 - 19, 2010 ESF-EMBO Symposium on Molecular Perspectives on Protein-Protein Interactions
Sant Feliu de Guixols, Spain Further information
The conference aims to gather scientists from molecular cell biology, biochemistry, structural biology, biophysics and bioinformatics with the common interest to explore the immensely important field of protein-protein interactions. The particular focus of the conference will be on molecular aspects of protein-protein interactions. Topics will include theory and computation, thermodynamics & kinetics, intrinsically unstructured protein complexes, PPI in disease and drug development, protein interaction networks, signaling complexes, membrane protein complexes, emerging and single molecule techniques, evolution and design as well as large multi-protein complexes. Fundamental and applied problems in these fields will be discussed from an interdisciplinary perspective.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Nanotechnology in Water Treatment

2010-07-16T16:29:31+01:00

The new book on Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications edited by T. Eugene Cloete, Michele de Kwaadsteniet, Marelize Botes and J. Manuel López-Romero has been published read more ...

Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications

Edited by: T. Eugene Cloete, Michele de Kwaadsteniet, Marelize Botes and J. Manuel López-Romero
ISBN: 978-1-904455-66-0
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: June 2010
Cover: hardback

MicroRNAs Conference

2010-07-01T10:55:46+01:00

November 1 - 2, 2010 MicroRNAs: Biology to Development and Disease

Oxford, UK Further information
Fifth International MicroRNAs Europe 2010‚ Meeting
Suggested reading: RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression: A Hidden Layer of Complexity

Genotyping Conference

2010-07-01T10:53:14+01:00

September 20 - 21, 2010 Genotyping, SNiPs to Traits and Diseases

Oxford, UK Further information
First International EGM: European Genomics-2010- Meeting. Topics include Genomic Studies in plants and animal model organisms, Genotyping with various Technological Platforms, Discovery of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms and Human Trait Genes, SNP Hybrid Arrays and Mapping Studies, Copy Number and Structural Variations, Genome Variation and Allele-specific Gene Expression, Haplotype Mapping and Variome Projects, Comparative Genomic hybridization , Global Variation in the human Genome and Disease causing variants, SNP Genotyping and real-time PCR, Disease-associated SNPs , Disease Genetics and Diagnostics, Exponential Quantitative Trait Loss.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

RNA Silencing in Plants

2010-06-29T08:31:19+01:00

RNA Silencing in Plants and the Role of Viral Suppressors
from Ana Giner, Juan Jose Lopez-Moya and Lorant Lakatos writing in RNA Interference and Viruses
The term RNA silencing refers to several pathways present in eukaryotic organisms that lead to the sequence specific elimination or functional blocking of RNAs with homology to double stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) that have previously triggered the mechanism. Besides playing important roles in developmental control, RNA silencing forms part of the defence against viruses in plants, acting as a potent antiviral mechanism. To escape from the RNA silencing-based defence, most plant viruses make use of different strategies, the most common relying in the action of viral proteins with the capacity to suppress RNA silencing. The characterization of these viral suppressors is providing useful insights to understand how RNA silencing works, revealing components and steps in the silencing pathways.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | RNA Interference and Viruses | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Plant Viral Vectors for Protein Expression

2010-06-29T08:13:24+01:00

Plant Viral Vectors for Protein Expression
from Yuri Y. Gleba and Anatoli Giritch writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

Plant-virus-driven transient expression of heterologous proteins is the basis of several mature manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of multiple proteins including vaccine antigens and antibodies. Viral vectors have also become useful tools for research. In recent years, advances have been made both in the development of first-generation vectors (those that employ the 'full virus' strategy) as well as second-generation vectors designed using the 'deconstructed virus' approach. This second strategy relies on Agrobacterium as a vector to deliver DNA copies of one or more viral RNA replicons. Among the most often used viral backbones are those of Tobacco mosaic virus, Potato virus X, and Cowpea mosaic virus. Prototypes of industrial processes that provide for high-yield, rapid scale-up, and fast manufacturing have been recently developed using viral vectors, with several manufacturing facilities compliant with good manufacturing practices (GMP) in place, and a number of pharmaceutical proteins currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications

RNA Silencing

2010-06-29T08:10:44+01:00

RNA Silencing and the Interplay Between Plants and Viruses
from Lourdes Fernández-Calvino, Livia Donaire and César Llave writing in Recent Advances in Plant Virology

In eukaryotes, RNA silencing controls gene expression to regulate development, genome stability and stress-induced responses. In plants, this process is also recognized as a major immune system targeted against plant viruses. Plant viruses stimulate RNA silencing responses though formation of viral RNA with double-stranded features that are subsequently processed into functional small RNAs (sRNAs). Recent studies highlight the complexity of the viral sRNA populations and their potential to associate with multiple silencing effector complexes. This fact has profound implications in the cross-talk interactions between plants and viruses since both virus genomes and host genes are putative targets of viral sRNAs. The concept of RNA silencing is an elegant natural antiviral mechanism in plants. Viral sRNA-mediated regulation of gene expression is important in the frame of compatible interactions between plants and viruses.

Further reading: Recent Advances in Plant Virology | Virology Publications | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

Glycoconjugate Vaccine

2010-06-24T11:15:23+01:00

Glycoconjugate Vaccine
from David R. Bundle writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Methods for single point attachment of polysaccharides and oligosaccharides to protein carriers and T-cell peptides are important in vaccine design. Contemporary approaches involve synthetic oligosaccharides with linker or tether chemistry designed for compatibility with synthetic strategies. Current research involves the synthesis and evaluation of conjugate vaccines designed to combat infectious bacterial and fungal diseases, as well as the design and testing of therapeutic cancer vaccine. The prevailing dogma that protective B-cell epitopes should be comprised of 10-20 monosaccharides is confirmed for several experimental vaccines including those directed toward Shigell flexneri and Shigella dysenteriae. However, several small epitopes composed of 3-5 monosaccharide residues are sufficient to induce antibody against the whole organism and to confer protection.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Genome-derived vaccine

2010-06-24T11:04:23+01:00

The first genome-derived vaccine now in clinical trials
from Fabio Bagnoli, Nathalie Norais, Ilaria Ferlenghi, Maria Scarselli, Claudio Donati, Silvana Savino, Michèle A. Barocchi and Rino Rappuoli writing in Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Genome sequencing has become routine, and modern vaccine design is taking advantage of the accumulating genomic information. Reverse vaccinology is built on genome-based antigen discovery and has largely replaced classical vaccinology methods based on growing and dissecting the microorganism. The main advantage of the approach is the fast prediction of vaccine candidates. Most of the antigens will be surface exposed proteins, since these antigens are most likely accessible to antibodies. This approach can be applied to non-cultivable microorganisms, something difficult or impossible to do with conventional approaches. When the first reverse vaccinology project was started, in the year 2000, antigen identification was mainly based on bioinformatic analysis of one genome. Since then, the technique has shown its full potential, with the first genome-derived vaccine now in clinical trials and several vaccines in preclinical studies. In the meantime the approach has been improved with the support of proteomics, functional genomics and comparative genomics. The complete process includes antigen prediction to high-throughput purification, screening and selection of the vaccine composition.

Further reading: Vaccine Design: Innovative Approaches and Novel Strategies

Conference: Applied Microbiology

2010-06-23T14:14:07+01:00

April 3 - 6, 2011 Annual Conference of the Association for General an Applied Microbiology (VAAM)
Karlsruhe, Germany Further information
Main topics: Cell Biology, Environmental Microbiology, Food Microbiology, Microbial Interactions, New Imaging and other innovative Techniques, Stress Responses, White Biotechnology

Suggested reading: Microbiology Books

Conference: Microbes and Industrial Biotechnology

2010-06-23T14:12:51+01:00

November 21 - 24, 2010 ESF-BU-CeBiTec Conference on Microbes and Industrial Biotechnology
Bielefeld, Germany Further information
Chair: Volker Wendisch, Bielefeld University, Institut fur Genomforschung und Systembiologie, DE, Oluf Kruse, Bielefeld University, Center for Biotechnology. Closing date for application is 10th of September, 2010.
Suggested reading: Microbiology Books

Course: Microscopy, Modeling and Biophysical Methods

2010-06-23T14:11:57+01:00

September 20 - October 2, 2010 Microscopy, Modeling and Biophysical Methods
Heidelberg, Germany Further information
EMBO Practical Course

Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Conference: Protein-Protein Interactions

2010-06-23T14:10:51+01:00

November 14 - 19, 2010 Molecular Perspectives on Protein-Protein Interactions
Sant Feliu de Guixols, Spain Further information
ESF-EMBO Symposium. Chaired by: Dr. Jacob Piehler, University of Osnabruck, DE, Co-Chairs: Gideon Schreiber, Weizmann Institute of Science, IL, Colin Kleanthous, University of York, UK
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Conference: Cytoskeleton from Molecules to Cells

2010-06-23T14:09:44+01:00

October 3 - 8, 2010 Emergent Properties of the Cytoskeleton: Molecules to Cells
Sant Feliu de Guixols, Spain Further information
Chaired by: Michelle Peckham, University of Leeds, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Centre for Human Biology, UK, Claudia Veigel, National Institute of Medical Research, Physical Biochemistry Department, UK

Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Conference: Transcription and Chromatin

2010-06-23T14:07:06+01:00

August 28 - 30, 2010 Transcription and Chromatin
Heidelberg, Germany Further information
9th EMBL Conference. Transcription and Chromatin. EMBL Courses and Conferences. Understanding the complexity and functional composition of cellular and synaptic networks in the nervous system is a major challenge in neurobiology. Genes and molecules impact directly the assembly, function, and plasticity of specific neural circuits, and recent studies in different model systems start to elucidate the functionality of neuronal connectomes as an higher organisational entity required for the generation of complex behaviours. The goal of this Symposium is to highlight recent work on the anatomical and functional analysis of behaviourally-relevant neural circuits in genetically tractable model systems, and to promote the exchange of ideas and methods in this exciting field of research.

Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

ABC Transporters Book Review

2010-06-22T14:06:48+01:00

I am pleased to provide the following excerpt from a book review of ABC Transporters in Microorganisms:

"of practical use to any scientist working on active transport systems whether in bacteria, parasites, or human cells. It is written in a fashion that allows readers to focus on specific topics and shows comparisons between systems. All the authors are from different disciplines but have contributed their knowledge to a cohesive book ... The book contains some excellent figures of the folding patterns of the proteins and the dynamics of how they change to import or export specific substrates ... well-organized and well-written book ... should be considered an essential reference for laboratories working in this area." from Rebecca T. Horvat (University of Kansas Medical Center, USA) writing in Doodys read more ...

ABC Transporters in Microorganisms

Edited by: Alicia Ponte-Sucre
ISBN: 978-1-904455-49-3
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: August 2009
Cover: hardback

"well-organized and well-written ... an essential reference" (Doodys)

Small RNAs

2010-06-16T16:11:43+01:00

The small RNAs of Salmonella
from Sridhar Javayel, Kai Papenfort and Jörg Vogel writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

To date, close to one hundred distinct small noncoding RNAs (sRNAs) have been identified in Salmonella by a variety of biocomputational or wet-lab approaches including RNA sequencing. The function of more than twenty of these sRNAs is known from studies in Salmonella itself or can be inferred from conserved homologs in E. coli Many of these sRNAs act in conjunction with the RNA-chaperone Hfq to post-transcriptionally repress or activate trans-encoded target genes, but cis-antisense RNAs and regulators of protein activity are also abundantly present. In addition to a large number of sRNAs conserved in other enteric bacteria, Salmonella also expresses a set of sRNAs specific to this genus. Interestingly, such regulators have been shown to control the expression of conserved genes encoded on the "core" Salmonella genome. Conversely, conserved sRNA can act as regulators of recently acquired Salmonella-specific genes, indicating significant cross-talk of conserved and horizontally acquired elements at the RNA level. A recent review covers strategies for the identification of sRNAs as well as their characterized functional roles in Salmonella.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function | RNA and the Regulation of Gene Expression

High-throughput analysis

2010-06-16T16:08:42+01:00

High-throughput screening to determine the genetic requirements for Salmonella survival under different growth conditions
from Mollie Megan Reynolds, Rocio Canals, Michael McClelland and Helene Andrews-Polymenis writing in Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Salmonella species are capable of survival in a wide range of niches, both in the environment and in an infected host. Genetic requirements for survival of Salmonella in different niches have traditionally been identified using gene expression and forward genetics. The availability of complete genome sequences, microarray technology, and cost-effective new sequencing capabilities enabled increasingly efficient high-throughput analyses of Salmonella genomes to identify elements that contribute to survival in these niches. A recent review describes many of the high-throughput tools that have been developed over the past two decades, and the genetic requirements for Salmonella survival that have been identified using these techniques.

Further reading: Salmonella: From Genome to Function

Microfluidic Emulsion PCR

2010-06-15T15:30:17+01:00

Microfluidic Emulsion PCR
from N. Reginald Beer and John H. Leamon writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR has traditionally been performed in microliter-scale reactions because larger scale volumes are prohibitively expensive and wasteful while the smaller scales (nanoliter and below) are impractical with available sample handling tools and detection systems. At the microliter scale, samples can contain mutually competitive and distinct targets, introducing amplification bias and competitive inhibition that degrade assay performance. Microfluidic Emulsion PCR has emerged as a technique to resolve these challenges by a combination of two enabling technologies. Emulsion PCR provides the advantages of fluid partitioning, namely elimination of sample bias and the ability to run millions of reactions in discrete volumes, while microfluidics simultaneously reduces the sample volume, introduces a level of control over emulsion parameters, and provides optical observability of the partitioned microreactors. Furthermore, since microfluidic emulsions can be made monodisperse in size, they allow the assumption of an average dilution per reactor to permit the exploitation of Poisson statistics for very accurate titer estimation. Microfluidic emulsions can also be employed to perform solid-phase amplification with bead-based assays, combining yet another useful technique with the sample partitioning benefits of droplets. We expect the advantages of both emulsion PCR and microfluidics will encourage new applications and the integration of these enabling technologies will improve PCR performance.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR High Resolution Melting Analysis

2010-06-15T15:30:12+01:00

High Resolution Melting Analysis
from John F. Mackay and Carl T. Wittwer writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

Real-time qPCR using SYBR Green and melting curve analysis to verify specific product amplification has become a standard laboratory technique for rapid, high throughput gene quantification. An extension of this melting curve method - High Resolution melting analysis (HRMA) is now doing the same for the analysis of sequence variation, allowing rapid cost-effective discrimination of sequences to SNP level in an automated closed-tube method. Two PCR primers are typically required as with SYBR Green quantification but HRMA differs in its requirement for the use of a saturating dye, precise reaction temperature control and software algorithms to cluster the melting curves. Originally described for SNP analysis (and still the leading application), HRMA is now being used in a wider context- HLA comparisons, microsatellite genotyping and methylation status of DNA sequences. New developments such as unlabeled probes and snapback elements on the PCR primers allow the simultaneous genotyping of a desired SNP with the scanning of the whole amplicon for other sequence variation.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR in Epigenetics

2010-06-15T15:30:09+01:00

PCR Applications for Epigenetics Research
from Gavin Meredith, Miro Dudas, Mark Landers, Vasiliki Anest, Jonathan Wang, Caifu Chen, Peter Jozsi and Christopher Adams writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

The field of epigenetics transcends traditional genetics, genomics, molecular biology, and is poised to revolutionize the field of medical research and healthcare. It is a diverse field that encompasses the study of nuclear components such as chromatin structure, including histone modifications, protein/DNA interactions, protein/RNA interactions, and how these factors influence gene function. It also includes the study of DNA methylation and the role that non-coding RNAs play in influencing DNA methylation patterns, chromatin structure and ultimately regulating gene expression. Just as the field of epigenetics is broad and complex, so is the molecular technology of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). For every question one would like to address in any of these areas of epigenetics, there is a PCR application and instrumentation suitable to address it. For example there are numerous PCR-based approaches to look at DNA methylation patterns, densities, and even the methylation status of individual cytosine residues by PCR. Additionally, there are PCR methods to survey ncRNA expression and identify regions of the genome where proteins and RNA interact or where certain functional histone marks are located.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR: MIQE

2010-06-15T15:30:07+01:00

The MIQE Guidelines Uncloaked
from Gregory L. Shipley writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

The MIQE (Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments) guidelines have been presented to serve as a practical guide for authors when publishing experimental data based on real-time qPCR. Each item is presented in tabular form as a checklist within the MIQE manuscript. However, this format has left little room for explanation of precisely what is expected from the items listed and no information on how one might go about assimilating the information requested. An expanded explanation of the guideline items on how those requirements might be met should be consulted prior to publication.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR Data Analysis

2010-06-15T15:30:04+01:00

qPCR Data Analysis: Unlocking the Secret to Successful Results
from Jan Hellemans and Jo Vandesompele writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) is the gold standard for fast, accurate, sensitive and cost-efficient gene expression analysis. Despite its conceptual simplicity and ease of use, the multi-step qPCR workflow contains many potential pitfalls. An intelligent experiment design and setup, high quality reagents and assays, quality controls in each step of the workflow, proper quantification models and appropriate bio-statistical analyses pave the way to successful gene expression results. Data analysis aspects include the evaluation of pilot studies and quality controls, through universally applicable quantification models and bio-statistics, to the reporting of experiment results.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR Instrumentation

2010-06-15T15:30:02+01:00

Real-Time PCR Instrumentation: An Instrument Selection Guide
from Sandrine Javorski-Miller and Ivan Delgado Orlic writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

A paper from 2008 mentions that quantitative PCR is 25 years old but routine use of this technology has only taken off during the past 12 years. The first commercial Real-Time PCR instrument, the ABI Prism 7700, was introduced to researchers in 1996 by Applied Biosystems. Since then over 40 additional Real-Time PCR instruments have been developed by more than a dozen vendors. Because there are so many Real-Time PCR instrument available utilizing a wide range of technologies, scientists face a daunting selection task. The space includes everything from entry level (single color detection, a small number of samples, low cost) to more complex (over 5 channel colors and multiplex detection, thousands of samples processed in each run, and expensive system price). Key features differentiate Real-Time PCR instruments, and various criteria should be considered when selecting the instrument that best fits a specific scientist's research needs.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR Optimization

2010-06-15T15:29:59+01:00

RT-PCR Optimization Strategies
from Martina Reiter and Michael W. Pfaffl writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR technology is based on a simple principle; an enzymatic reaction that increases the amount of nucleic acids initially present in a sample but this powerful method makes it possible to detect specific mRNA transcripts in any biological sample by the application of RT-PCR. The RT-PCR quantitative analysis workflow has several steps, each of which is crucial to the success of the experiment. It starts with a sampling step, followed by nucleic acid extraction and stabilization, cDNA synthesis and finally the qPCR where the mRNA quantification takes place. PCR itself is quite a stable reaction with reproducibility between 2-8% but the number and nature of the pre-PCR steps mean that there are many sources of experimental variance in the workflow. Reliable data can only be produced when the experimental variance is minimized, so the sources of variation must be identified and optimized for each step of each experiment. Typically, however, the pre-PCR steps are neglected and optimization is done for PCR reaction only. Optimization of the whole RT-PCR workflow is important and recommendations to reduce experimental variance and produce more reproducible and reliable results should be followed.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR Sensitivity

2010-06-15T15:29:56+01:00

Obtaining Maximum PCR Sensitivity and Specificity
from Cameron N. Gundry and Matthew D. Poulson writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide:

PCR is a highly sensitive and specific technique used in molecular biology laboratories everywhere. It is able to provide near 100% sensitivity and specificity with appropriately designed assays in controlled situations. However, results do not always match this potential. The most common problems in PCR arise from overlooking basic principles in assay design and optimization. Maximum PCR performance depends on key factors which include: 1) choosing an appropriate detection system, 2) using available software for the best primer and probe design, 3) assessing sample quality and controlling inhibitors, 4) avoiding amplicon and environmental contamination, 5) optimizing for reagent quality and concentration, and 6) modifying the thermal cycling protocol for optimal sensitivity and specificity. Addressing all of these factors will aid the investigator in designing high quality PCR assays.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR Controls and Standards

2010-06-15T15:29:11+01:00

Significance of Controls and Standard Curves in PCR
from Ian Kavanagh, Gerwyn Jones and Saima Naveed Nayab writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide:

Whilst qPCR is a powerful technique, the results achieved using this method is valid only if the appropriate controls have been included in the experiment. Careful selection of controls and proper Optimisation of qPCR conditions promise generation of highly specific, repeatable, reproducible and sensitive data. There are strategies for preparing both negative and positive controls for PCR, when they should be employed and how to interpret the information they provide. Standard curves are vital for determining the initial starting amount of the target template and for assessing assay efficiency, precision, sensitivity, and dynamic range. It is important to know how to prepare standards, interpret standard curve and troubleshoot inefficient qPCR reactions.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR Inhibitors

2010-06-15T15:27:42+01:00

Difficult Templates and Inhibitors of PCR
from Jack M. Gallup writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide:

One of the least-acknowledged problems with PCR, RT-PCR and qPCR is reaction inhibition. Addressing or eliminating inhibition is central to allowing qPCR to be modeled by the least complex mathematics, and enables more effective troubleshooting of amplifications from difficult templates such as AT- or GC-rich sequences, repetitive sequences, and templates with prohibitive secondary structures. In the absence of inhibition, additives aimed at improving PCR, RT-PCR and qPCR performance can be assessed more directly, allowing investigators to identify and utilize better primer/probe designs, enzymes and master mixes, and formulate better reverse transcription reactions. In addition to inhibition, RNA integrity is another major concern which must be addressed both by using appropriate optical assessments and the 3':5' assay.

To address inhibition, commercial kits for removing inhibitory substances have been developed in addition to the SPUD assay and the P-Q assay-development/project-management software tool. Although reagent choice alone plays a large part in determining the success or failure of reverse transcription, PCR, RT-PCR or qPCR, there are strategies for detecting, avoiding and/or eliminating inhibition during reverse transcription, PCR, RT-PCR and qPCR. Also there are strategies to amplify difficult templates and optimize reverse transcription reactions.

Further reading: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

PCR: A Brief History

2010-06-15T15:26:39+01:00

A Brief History of PCR
from Carl T. Wittwer and Jared S. Farrar writing in PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide:

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has become a fundamental tool in molecular research and clinical testing. A recent review by Wittwer and Farrar discusses the origins of PCR, its early evolution including adaptation to RNA, thermostable polymerases, automation, improvements in specificity and rapid temperature cycling. Perhaps the most significant advance is real-time PCR, combining both amplification and detection into one instrument as a superior solution for nucleic acid quantification. Real-time PCR is enabled by monitoring the reaction with double stranded DNA dyes or specific probes, including hydrolysis, hybridization, and conformation-sensitive probes. PCR product and probe melting analysis continues to improve in resolution, allowing greater sequence detail for genotyping and variant scanning. Microfluidic platforms and digital PCR are destined to find more applications in the future.

Read more: PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

Conference Alert: Non-Coding Genome

2010-06-08T08:50:21+01:00

October 13 - 16, 2010 The Non-Coding Genome
Heidelberg, Germany Further information

This symposium will provide an interdisciplinary discussion of the roles of non-coding RNAs with the aim of enhancing our understanding of gene regulation and function. Topics will include recent discoveries in the fields of prokaryotic and eukaryotic long and short non-coding RNAs. The functional roles of non-coding RNAs in a wide variety of cell processes will be discussed.
Suggested reading: RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends

Conference alert: Neural Circuits

2010-06-08T08:48:21+01:00

September 5 - 8, 2010 Structure and Function of Neural Circuits
Heidelberg, Germany Further information

Understanding the complexity and functional composition of cellular and synaptic networks in the nervous system is a major challenge in neurobiology. Genes and molecules impact directly the assembly, function, and plasticity of specific neural circuits, and recent studies in different model systems start to elucidate the functionality of neuronal connectomes as an higher organisational entity required for the generation of complex behaviours. The goal of this Symposium is to highlight recent work on the anatomical and functional analysis of behaviourally-relevant neural circuits in genetically tractable model systems, and to promote the exchange of ideas and methods in this exciting field of research.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

PCR Seminar Online

2010-06-07T17:26:52+01:00

No matter how good you are at PCR, you can always learn something from the speakers we have lined up for our Getting the most out of PCR live online seminar series. These guy eat, sleep and drink PCR.

Next up we have MIQE Guidelines Uncloaked, in which Greg Shipley will give you the inside track on the requirements you need to satisfy to make sure your PCR results are suitable for publication. You'd be mad to miss it.

This event goes out live tomorrow (Tue 8th June) at 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm BST (UK) / 6pm CET. Click here to secure one of the remaining places on this live event..

You can also click here to take a look at our archive for this series, which now contains:

Magic in Solution: An Introduction and Brief History of PCR
Speaker: Carl Wittwer

Obtaining Maximum PCR Sensitivity and Specificity
Speaker: Cameron N. Gundry Attendence: 125

Significance of Controls and Standard Curves in PCR
Speaker: Ian Kavanagh

Streptomyces book

2010-06-07T12:21:41+01:00

Paul Dyson (Institute of Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Swansea, UK) presents a new book on Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology
Streptomycetes are Gram-positive, high GC-content, sporulating bacteria found predominantly in soil. Streptomycetes are characterised by a complex secondary metabolism producing antibiotic compounds and other metabolites with medicinal properties. In recent years genomic studies, genomic mining and biotechnological approaches have been employed in the search for new antibiotics and other drugs.
With contributions from some of the leading scientists in the field, this volume documents recent research and development in streptomycetes genomics, physiology and metabolism. With a focus on biotechnology and genomics, the book provides an excellent source of up-to-date information. Topics include: genome architecture, conjugative genetic elements, differentiation, protein secretion, central carbon metabolic pathways, regulation of nitrogen assimilation, phosphate control of metabolism, gamma-butyrolactones and their role in antibiotic regulation, clavulanic acid and clavams, genome-guided exploration, gene clusters for bioactive natural products, genomics of cytochromes p450.

Streptomyces: Molecular Biology and Biotechnology

Edited by: Paul Dyson
ISBN: 978-1-904455-77-6
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: January 2011
Cover: hardback

Essential reading for research scientists, biotechnologists, graduate students and other professionals involved in streptomycetes research, antibiotic and antimicrobial development, drug discovery, soil microbiology and related fields. A recommended text for all microbiology laboratories.

Small DNA Binding Proteins in Bacteria

2010-05-20T14:06:33+01:00

Integrity of the bacterial genome is essential to survival of the organism. Further, the size of the bacterial cell necessitates significant compaction of the genomic DNA, yet availability to various cellular machineries is important for cell growth. A variety of small DNA-binding proteins encompass these functions. These proteins are sometimes referred-to as histone-like, not because of sequence or structural similarity to eukaryotic histones, but because of comparable roles in nucleoid compaction. A number of such nucleoid-associated proteins have been identified in Escherichia coli, including H-NS, Fis, Dps (DNA protection during starvation), HU, and IHF (Integration Host Factor), all of which are present at concentrations up to or even exceeding 10 mM, depending on growth conditions. These proteins have different DNA-binding properties and function together (and sometimes opposing each other) to organize genomic DNA and to regulate DNA-dependent activities.

Further reading: Functional Evolution of Bacterial Histone-Like HU Proteins

Microbial Biotechnology in Agriculture

2010-05-17T15:48:40+01:00

November 1 - 3, 2010 Bio-Processing and Application of Microbial Biotechnology in Agriculture
Cairo, Egypt Further information
1st International Conference of Bio-Processing and Application of Microbial Biotechnology in Agriculture
Suggested reading: Microbiology Books

Getting The Most Out of PCR

2010-05-13T15:28:25+01:00

We would like to draw your attention to an online seminar series "Getting The Most Out of PCR", which is being broadcast by the popular life science blog, Bitesize Bio. Bitesize Bio is headed by Nick Oswald and Suzanne Kennedy, who co-edited our recent title "PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization".

The series lineup includes many of the authors from this book and kicks off on 18 May with a talk from LightCycler co-inventor, Carl Wittwer, entitled "Magic in Solution: An Introduction and Brief History of PCR". This will be a great learning experience with an opportunity to ask questions and learn from experts and pioneers in the PCR field. The full program is shown below.

Click here to book your place on these excellent events.

Magic in Solution: An Introduction and Brief History of PCR
Speaker: Carl Wittwer
18 May 2010 / 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm GMT / 6pm CET

Obtaining Maximum PCR Sensitivity and Specificity
Speaker: Cameron N. Gundry
25 May 2010 / 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm GMT / 6pm CET

Significance of Controls and Standard Curves in PCR
Speaker: Ian Kavanagh
01 June 2010 / 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm GMT / 6pm CET

The MBD2-based Enrichment Approach for Analyzing DNA methylation
Speaker: Chris Adams
08 June 2010 / 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm GMT / 6pm CET

The MIQE Guidelines Uncloaked
Speaker: Greg Shipley
15 June 2010 / 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm GMT / 6pm CET

High Resolution Melting Analysis - Beyond the SNP
Speaker: John Mackay
22 June 2010 / 9am Pacific / 12pm Eastern / 5pm GMT / 6pm CET

Conference announcement

2010-05-06T12:28:20+01:00

September 28 - 29, 2010 Probe Discovery
Washington, DC, USA Further information
2nd annual Probe Discovery conference and exhibition. The word probe is a broad term which can be interpreted to mean any one of a wide variety of agents. These include active chemistries discovered in academic screening labs or in government (MLPCN or the NIH), commercially available probes (i.e. dyes, antibodies, fluorescent proteins), failed drug candidates from Pharma, whole body or cellular imaging agents, specific biomarkers or tool molecules from chemogenomics and/or systems biology efforts. The goal of this conference is to bring all of the various incarnations of probe hunters together to share experience and network to a common purpose.
Suggested reading: Real-Time PCR: Current Technology and Applications

September 28 - 29, 2010 Ion Channel Targets
Washington, DC, USA Further information
6th annual Ion Channel Targets conference and exhibition. Agenda Topics: Ion Channels in Drug Discovery, Target Identification and Validation, Advances in Ion Channel Technology, Ion Channels & Drug Safety (including hERG), Outsourcing, Ion Channels in Disease Biology, Transporter Protein
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

September 27 - 30, 2010 Horizons in Molecular Biology
Gottingen, Germany Further information
The international PhD student symposium will feature talks from cell biology, developmental biology, structure biology, neuroscience and from this year's special session, future biology. Maria Leptin, Facundo Batista, Luis Serrano and last year's Nobel Prize winner Venki Ramakrishnan are some of the confirmed speakers. Student talks and poster sessions are traditionally included in the program and give mainly young scientists the possibility to get valuable input for their own work. There is the possibility to apply for travel grants.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Human Variation: Cause and Consequence

2010-04-30T15:34:13+01:00

June 20 - 23, 2010 Human Variation: Cause and Consequence

Heidelberg, Germany Further information

The goal of this Symposium is to explore human genetic and phenotypic variability in the light of recent developments in genomics, genetics and molecular medicine. The topics covered will include the mechanisms of mutation, normal sequence variation from the DNA to the chromosomal level, functional polymorphism and disease genetics. Keynote Lectures will be delivered by Svante Paabo, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and Kari Stefansson, deCODE genetics.

Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Antiviral Role of RNA Interference

2010-04-30T08:27:03+01:00

from Michelle L. Flenniken, Mark Kunitomi, Michel Tassetto and Raul Andino in Insect Virology

Insects, like all living organisms, have developed defence mechanisms to resist infection. RNA interference (RNAi), a nucleic acid-based, post-transcriptional gene regulation process has recently emerged as a central pathway to anti-viral defence in insects. In this chapter, we outline the role of RNAi in insect immunity and highlight research that led to its discovery as well as research aimed at understanding the mechanistic details of anti-viral RNAi and the counter-measures viruses employ to modulate this immunological mechanism. As our knowledge of the pathways and mechanisms involved in insect immunity expands, so do the opportunities to employ insects as model systems to examine the general principles and co-evolution of hosts and their pathogens.

Further reading: Insect Virology

Sensory Mechanisms book

2010-04-29T12:29:34+01:00

Stephen Spiro and Ray Dixon (Texas, USA and Norwich,UK; respectively) present a new publication Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition
This book reviews a selection of important model systems, providing a timely snapshot of the current state of research in the field. The book opens with an introductory chapter that reviews the diversity of signal recognition mechanisms, illustrating the breadth of the field. Subsequent chapters include descriptions of the sensing of ligands (alpha-ketoglutarate, adenylate energy charge, glutamine and xenobiotic compounds), chemoreceptors, iron-sulfur cluster-based sensors, metal-dependent and metal-responsive sensors, thiol-based sensors, and PDZ domains as sensors of other proteins read more ....

Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition

Edited by: Stephen Spiro and Ray Dixon
ISBN: 978-1-904455-69-1
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: September 2010
Cover: Hardback

PDZ domains as sensors of other proteins

2010-04-29T12:25:07+01:00

from Rebecca Kirk and Tim Clausen in Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition

Proteins containing PDZ domains have been shown to mediate a wide range of protein-protein interactions and to function as molecular scaffolds in the assembly of multi-protein complexes. The most studied typical function of PDZ domains is to recognize and bind short specific sequences at the C-terminal tails of their interacting partners; however other PDZ-mediated interactions including the recognition of internal motifs have been reported. PDZ domains are frequently combined with catalytic domains like, for example, protease, kinase and phosphatase domains. In this case, the PDZ domains do not simply function as molecular glue bringing entities of signaling cascades in contact with each other, but rather exert important regulatory functions by controlling the activity of their co-working partner domain. For one class of PDZ-enzymes, the HtrA proteases, the inter-domain communication has been studied in molecular detail providing the first insight into how PDZ domains control enzyme function and sense different external stimuli. HtrA proteins function to monitor protein homeostasis in the cell.

In prokaryotes this family of proteins underpins processes required for tolerance against various folding stresses and pathogenicity. Human HtrA proteins are involved in mammalian stress response pathways and in the prevention of the onset of protein misfolding diseases: including arthritis, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease. Recent biochemical and structural data indicate that the PDZ domains of HtrA proteins could act as sensors of folding stress, autoproteolysis, misfolded proteins, cleavage products and of specific interaction partners.

Further reading: Sensory Mechanisms in Bacteria: Molecular Aspects of Signal Recognition

Genetics of bifidobacteria

2010-04-28T14:34:51+01:00

from Pablo Alvarez Martin, Simone Guglielmetti, and Baltasar Mayo in Bifidobacteria: Genomics and Molecular Aspects

Mobile genetic elements, cloning vectors and genetic manipulation of bifidobacteria.
Growth difficulties, because of their fastidious nutritive nature and oxygen sensitivity, and a lack of efficient genetic tools have impeded until recently proper development of molecular studies in Bifidobacteria. These studies, however, are critical to uncover the cross-talk between bifidobacteria and their hosts' cells, and also to prove unequivocally the supposed beneficial activities supplied through the gastrointestinal tract of mammals either endogenously or after ingestion as probiotics.

Analysis of gene sequences provided by whole genome sequencing projects has opened new avenues to decipher the genetic basis of bacteria-cell interactions and probiotic effects. However, the purposeful development of stable cloning and expression vectors based on robust replicons, either from temperate phages or resident plasmids, is additionally needed. Recent publications address the current knowledge on the mobile genetic elements of bifidobacteria (phages, plasmids, and transposons) and review the different types of vectors already available for the Bifidobacterium species, together with the transformation procedures for introducing DNA into bifidobacterial cells.

Further reading:

Electrospinning Nanofibers

2010-04-27T08:58:47+01:00

Electrospinning is a highly versatile technique that can be used to create ultrafine fibres of various polymers and other materials, with diameters ranging from a few micrometers down to tens of nanometres. The nonwoven webs of fibers formed through this process typically have high specific surface areas, nano-scale pore sizes, high and controllable porosity and extreme flexibility with regard to the materials used and modification of the surface chemistry of the fibres. The combination of these features permit the application of electrospun nanofibres in a variety of water treatment applications, including filtration, solid phase extraction and reactive membranes.
Read more: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications

Nanobiotechnology

2010-04-27T08:54:17+01:00

Microbial tests are based essentially on time-consuming culture methods. However, newer enzymatic, immunological and genetic methods are being developed to replace and/or support classical approaches to microbial detection. Moreover, innovations in nanotechnology and nanosciences are having a significant impact in biodiagnostics, where a number of nanoparticle-based assays and nanodevices have been introduced for biomolecular detection.
Current and emerging molecular approaches for the detection of microbial pathogens especially in the area of nanobiotechnology will aid microbial diagnostics and pathogen detection.

Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications

Nanotechnology

2010-04-27T08:46:08+01:00

Nanotechnology refers to the engineering and art of manipulating matter at the nanoscale (1-100 nm). This emerging technology has many applications applications including applications in microbiology and water treatment.
Nanotechnology offers the potential of novel nanomaterials (nanostructured catalytic membranes, nanosorbents, nanocatalysts and bioactive nanoparticles) for the treatment of surface water, groundwater and wastewater contaminated by toxic metal ions, organic and inorganic solutes and microorganisms. At the present time many nanomaterials are under active research and development for this purpose.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications

Population genetics

2010-04-21T08:14:51+01:00

Microbial population genetics is a rapidly advancing field of investigation with relevance to many areas of science. The subject encompasses theoretical issues such as the origins and evolution of species, sex and recombination. Population genetics lays the foundations for tracking the origin and evolution of antibiotic resistance and deadly infectious pathogens and is also an essential tool in the utilization of beneficial microbes.

Congress of the Human Proteome Organisation

2010-04-16T12:54:43+01:00

September 4 - 7, 2011 10th Congress of the Human Proteome Organisation
Geneva, Switzerland Further information
The combined HUPO 10th Annual World Congress, 5th EuPA Annual Scientific Meeting and the 8th SPS scientific meeting. The Scientific Program will focus on Translational Proteomics.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

World Molecular Imaging Congress

2010-04-16T12:52:12+01:00

September 8 - 11, 2010 2010 World Molecular Imaging Congress
Kyoto, Japan Further information
Organizers from the Society for Molecular Imaging (SMI), the Academy of Molecular Imaging (AMI), the European Society for Molecular Imaging (ESMI), and the Federation of Asian Societies for Molecular Imaging (FASMI) are working together, with input from a scientifically diverse, international program committee, to develop a scientific program that integrates developments in imaging technologies and molecular imaging agents with applications for drug development, basic science investigations, and clinical translation.
Suggested reading: Molecular Biology Books

Metagenomics

2010-03-30T15:41:47+01:00

The following excerpt is from a recent book review of Metagenomics: Theory, Methods and Applications:

"an excellent resource for students, researchers, and scientists ... a valuable resource on the newly evolving biological field of metagenomics, making contributions to ecology, biodiversity, bioremediation, bioprospection of natural products, medicine, and other disciplines." from Omer Iqbal (Loyola University Medical Center) writing in Doodys read more ...

Metagenomics: Theory, Methods and Applications

Edited by: Diana Marco
ISBN: 978-1-904455-54-7
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: January 2010
Cover: Hardback
read more ...

PCR Optimisation Book

2010-03-29T17:05:53+01:00

New PCR book announced:
The book describes and discusses strategies for preparing effective controls and standards for PCR, when they should be employed and how to interpret the information they provide. The significance of optimization for efficiency, precision and sensitivity of PCR methodology and essential guidance on how to troubleshoot inefficient reactions. Design and optimization techniques, the use of appropriate controls, the significance of standard curves and the principles and strategies required for effective troubleshooting. The importance of sample preparation and quality, primer design, controlling inhibitors, avoiding amplicon and environmental contamination, optimizing reagent quality and concentration, and modifying the thermal cycling protocol for optimal sensitivity and specificity read more.

PCR Troubleshooting and Optimization: The Essential Guide

Edited by: Suzanne Kennedy and Nick Oswald
ISBN: 978-1-904455-72-1
Publisher: Caister Academic Press
Publication Date: January 2011
Cover: Hardback
read more ...

Book Review: RNAi and Viruses

2010-03-05T14:47:56+00:00

"The use of RNA interference to control gene expression is emerging as an exciting new technology. The potential of this mechanism depends on the ability to find a competent way to deliver the RNA. This compact book reviews all of these issues in a comprehensive manner." from Doodys (2010)

Further reading: RNA Interference and Viruses: Current Innovations and Future Trends

Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration

2010-03-05T12:13:01+00:00

Reverse osmosis (hyperfiltration) and nanofiltration are membrane separation technologies. Reverse osmosis is based on the basic principle of osmotic pressure, while nanofiltration makes use of molecule size for separation. Recent advances in nanotechnology are opening a range of possibilities in membrane technologies. Current research involves: new membrane preparation and cleaning methods, new surface and interior modification possibilities, the use of new nanostructured materials, and new characterization techniques.
Further reading: Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications